Thinking and Managing Ethically Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Thinking and Managing Ethically - Essay Example al, 2007). CSR is playing an inevitable part and becoming more and more important in practice. It has an enormous potential to deliver better results while adding to business practices and knowledge. Corporate social responsibility plays a vital role in small and medium enterprises as more than 90 percent of enterprises in Asian Productivity Organization are members of SMEs. Gross domestic product consists of 75 percent of these enterprises (Hassan et. al, 2007). Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) stand for the companies whose turnover lies in certain limits. However, Malaysian SMEs are categorized as per the size, turnover and activity. In broad terms, Malaysian SMEs are defined in two major categories (Saleh et. al, 2006): The 2000 census conducted by the Department of Statistics in Malaysia shows that there were about 20,455 active firms in the manufacturing segment when talking about the total numbers of SMEs. This figure was out of about 44,185 manufacturing firms registered with the Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM). Textiles and apparel segment contributes the largest segment of about 17 per cent of the total enterprises. Where as, the food and beverages contributes about 14 per cent, metals and metals products contributes 14.3 per cent and wood and wood products contributes 13.6 per cent (Saleh et. al, 2006). The relevant stakeholders who deal with SMEs in Malaysia in any form follows and adopt these standard definitions. The list comprises of various Ministries and Agencies at Federal and State levels of Malaysian Government along with the Statutory Bodies, authorities and financial institutions. They maintain data based on annual sales turnover as well as number of full-time employees in companies

Income elasticity of demand Essay Example for Free

Income elasticity of demand Essay Luxury product sales boost in the emerging marketing like China, which has extraordinary growth and strong potential consumers for the development of luxury goods in the China market. With gradually lower and lower increase of revenue in the European countries, Louis Vuitton (abridged as LV in the following sections) commits itself to set up more stores in China. However, LV is faced with the problems of declining profits in China, which urges it to adjust its entry strategy into the China market. In this case, this report will focus on distinguishing the factors that influence LV’s development in China and laying out schemes for LV’s entry into China market by initially examining the internal and external environment for LV; analyzing the operational plan for LV’s entry into China based on the environment examination, and generating an action plan for LV’s entry strategy at the end of the report. Content 1. 0 Introduction Louis Vuitton (abridged as LV in the following sections) is planning to set up more stores in the China market. However, it is now faced with the problems of declining profits in China, which urges it to adjust its entry strategy into the China market. In this case, this report is to lay out schemes for LV’s entry into the China market by distinguishing the internal and external factors that influence LV’s development from the perspectives of country factors and internal advantages of LV with reference to the SWOT analysis model; analyzing the operational plan for LV’s entry into China based on the environment examination and including suggests on firm strategy, organization structure and management, entry strategy and modes, manufacturing management, marketing plan, and accounting as well as finance management; and generating an action plan for LV’s entry strategy at the end of the report according to the specifications of the business operational plan. 2. 0 Research Methods The research method of literature searches is adopted to generate this report. This method is chosen because there are plenty of existing studies on the development of luxury goods, which makes it possible for abundant literature searches. Also, there are a great many resources on the annual reports of Louis Vuitton available which offer insights into the financial performance of this company. Anyway, luxury goods are indeed possessed by the majority of people, which makes direct interviews or surveys less available. 3. 0 Findings: External and Internal Environment The internal and external factors that influence LV’s development will be examined in this section from the perspectives of country factors and internal advantages of LV. A SWOT analysis will be involved in this section, which aims to find out the strength, weakness, opportunity and threat of the company according to analysis on the internal conditions of the company and the external environment the company is faced with (Johnson Scholes, 2002, p122). 3. 1 External environment: Country factor analysis The external environment for LV’s entry into China will be discussed in terms of the politics and government policy of China, the economy and the China market, the social culture and transportation of China, and will be concluded from the perspectives of opportunities and threats for LV’s entry into China. In terms of politics and government policy, China is now actively opening up to the world and enhancing trade relationships with world brands since the reform and opening up policy. In terms of the economy and the China market, according to Yuval and Vinay and Cathy (2011), the analysts of Mckinsey quarterly, China has increasing booming urban cities including the second- and third-tier cities and the world second-largest GDP which means strong purchasing power the China consumers for luxury goods and great market potentials (para 8). They also pointed out that by 2015, Chinese consumers will account for more than 20 percent of the global luxury market. On the other hand, the large market potential has drawn a host of luxury-goods companies to enter the China market, which makes the competition fiercer and fiercer. And it is troublesome for LV that there are plenty of fake goods imitating LV’s style prevailing in China, which are actually not likely to reduce LV’s high-end consumers, but would exert negative influences on consumers’ impression and awareness of LV. In terms of social culture, for one thing, the China consumers are attracted by middle- and high-end products and somehow more attracted by French luxury goods, and they believe that the higher the price, the better the quality (Yuval, Vinay and Cathy, 2011, para7) (Exhibit 1). For another thing, the traditional virtue of thrift is rooted in the mindset of the Chinese, with which some of the rich in China indicate that they would not spend a large sum of money to get a product. (Exhibit 1) (Chinese consumers increasingly prefer internationally well-known brands. Retrieved on Jan 3rd 2013 from: http://www. mckinseyquarterly. com/Tapping_Chinas_luxury-goods_market_2779) In terms of transportation, airlines are increased like the Emirates group which launched air routines in the main cities of China, and railway transportation as well as road transportation is more and more available, making it convenient and fast for cross-national transportation. Therefore in conclusion, the opportunities for LVs entry into China can be concluded as Chinas encouraging policies on foreign brands entering into China; Chinas booming urban cities and increasing middle- and upper- class consumers with strong purchasing power; Chinese consumers purchasing preference for French high-end products; and the more and more convenient cross-national transportation in China. While the threats for LVs entry into China entail the fierce competition from the peer companies and brands; the trouble coming from increasing produced counterfeit products imitating LV in China; China consumers cautious traditional views on luxury goods purchasing. Anyway, when it comes to China consumers rational attitude towards luxury goods purchasing, it may be an opportunity for LV if it succeeds in drawing out their desires and needs for LVs products, otherwise it may turn out to be a threat for LVs expansion in China. 3. 2 Internal environment: Based on national level and firm level 3. 2. 1 Internal environment based on national level The advantages of internal environment for LV on national level lie in the its preference and prospect to greatly expand its business in China, its experiences of operating in China market for about twenty years, and its strong influence on and temptation to the China consumers, as well as customer loyalty for it. On the contrary, the disadvantages lie in its high price which will greatly influences China consumers’ will to purchase the products, and in its could-be easily imitated appearance and style which is made used of by some China manufacturers in producing fake goods. 3. 2. 2 Internal environment based on firm level 3. 2. 2. 1 The nature of LV’s products Dubois and Czellar and Laurent (2001) delineated Luxury goods as products with extraordinary quality as well as high price, rareness and uniqueness, aesthetic appeal, respectful long history, and the sense of being superior to others (p156). Yacine and Johnathan and Motohiro (2004) argued that luxury goods manual crafting and diligence should be involved into the manufacturing and designing of luxury goods (para 2). Based on these studies, the nature of LVs products can be abstracted as unique, rare, and excellent-quality, and extraordinary. 3. 2. 2. 2 Industry characteristics of luxury goods Kapferer (1996) suggested that luxury industry distinguishes the needs and demands of the wealthy people like prominent social figures, and produce unique superior products for them, which acts like a status symbol for the rich (p251). While Heine (2010) stated that the luxury industry is also fashion-oriented and high-quality guaranteed. And it is closely associated with the needs of the wealthy. Judging from these studies and the advancement of luxury products nowadays, the industrial characteristics of luxury products can be concluded as extraordinary quality with high guarantee, extremely personalized with unique designed style, strong brand recognition and customer loyalty, and highly profitable sales based on its high price. 3. 2. 2. 3 Advantages and disadvantage of internal environment for LV on firm level The advantages of LV on firm level mainly lie in its good brand image, abundant product portfolio, wide expansion in the China markets covering most of the first- and second-tier cities, and its control on the designs of products. This can be told from the following aspects. Above all, LV enjoys a good reputation of high quality and excellent services that it has occupied the first place of the 2012 Hurun Ranking of the Top ten luxury brands in the world (see Appendix 1), in which LV beats Hermes, the second in the list by nearly 43%. Also, LV offers manual crafting designed products which are special for certain customers. What’s more, it offers permanent after-sale serves to its customers (Paul, 2012, p79). In terms of geographical expansion, LV has reached many areas of China (Exhibit 2).

Biography of Billy Graham and His Accomplishments in His Career :: Billy Graham Religion Evangelism Essays

Biography of Billy Graham and His Accomplishments in His Career "This is the Hour of Decision with Billy Graham, coming to you from Minneapolis Minnesota" Billy Graham, has preached to more than 210 million people through a live audience, more than anyone else in history. Not only that, but Mr. Graham has reached millions more through live televison, video and film. This has led Billy to be on the "Ten Most Admired Men in the World" from the Gallup Poll since 1955 a total of thirty-nine times. This includes thirty-two consecutive more than any other individual in the world, placing him as the most popular American for about forty years. This essay is going to talk about Graham's personal life, and what kind of family he grew up in and im also going to talk in detail about how he became an evangelist, because I feel it is very important yet interesting. His accomplishments in the fifties are uncomparable, so I will be including a considerable amount of information concerning that topic. Finally I will be talking about his personal achievements, bo oks written, and how he has been a companion to some of the American Presidents. William Franklin Graham Jr. was born in Charlotte, North Carolina on November 17, 1918. Graham was raised on a dairy farm by William Franklin (deceased 1962) and Morrow Coffey Graham (deceased 1981). In 1943 he married his wife Ruth McCue Bell, and had four children Virginia 1945, Anne Morrow 1948, Ruth Bell 1950, William Franklin, Jr. 1952, and Nelson Edman 1958. At age eighty, he keeps fit by swimming, playing with is nineteen grand children, and from aerobic walking, in the mountains of North Carolina, where he currently lives. (Billy Graham Best Sellers, 1999) Billy Graham told Time Magazine in one article about his life before becoming a preacher. "I lived on a farm. The only difference was I had to get up early in the morning and go milk cows. When I came back from school that day, I had to milk those same cows. There were about twenty cows I had to milk. By hand. That was before they had those ma chines. I loved being a farmer. But God called me to this work that I'm in now. I knew it was God calling. I said, "Yes. I will follow what God wants me to do." And so I went to two or three schools to get education. Biography of Billy Graham and His Accomplishments in His Career :: Billy Graham Religion Evangelism Essays Biography of Billy Graham and His Accomplishments in His Career "This is the Hour of Decision with Billy Graham, coming to you from Minneapolis Minnesota" Billy Graham, has preached to more than 210 million people through a live audience, more than anyone else in history. Not only that, but Mr. Graham has reached millions more through live televison, video and film. This has led Billy to be on the "Ten Most Admired Men in the World" from the Gallup Poll since 1955 a total of thirty-nine times. This includes thirty-two consecutive more than any other individual in the world, placing him as the most popular American for about forty years. This essay is going to talk about Graham's personal life, and what kind of family he grew up in and im also going to talk in detail about how he became an evangelist, because I feel it is very important yet interesting. His accomplishments in the fifties are uncomparable, so I will be including a considerable amount of information concerning that topic. Finally I will be talking about his personal achievements, bo oks written, and how he has been a companion to some of the American Presidents. William Franklin Graham Jr. was born in Charlotte, North Carolina on November 17, 1918. Graham was raised on a dairy farm by William Franklin (deceased 1962) and Morrow Coffey Graham (deceased 1981). In 1943 he married his wife Ruth McCue Bell, and had four children Virginia 1945, Anne Morrow 1948, Ruth Bell 1950, William Franklin, Jr. 1952, and Nelson Edman 1958. At age eighty, he keeps fit by swimming, playing with is nineteen grand children, and from aerobic walking, in the mountains of North Carolina, where he currently lives. (Billy Graham Best Sellers, 1999) Billy Graham told Time Magazine in one article about his life before becoming a preacher. "I lived on a farm. The only difference was I had to get up early in the morning and go milk cows. When I came back from school that day, I had to milk those same cows. There were about twenty cows I had to milk. By hand. That was before they had those ma chines. I loved being a farmer. But God called me to this work that I'm in now. I knew it was God calling. I said, "Yes. I will follow what God wants me to do." And so I went to two or three schools to get education.

A Comparison of The Yellow Wallpaper and The Darling -- comparison com

In Charlotte Perkins Gilman's, "The Yellow Wallpaper", and Anton Chekhov's, "The Darling", we are introduced to main characters with lives surrounded by control. In Gilman's, "The Yellow Wallpaper", the main character, which remains nameless, is controlled by her husband, John. He tells her what she is and is not allowed to do, where she is to live, and that is she is not permitted to see her own child. In Chekhov's, "The Darling", the main character, Olenka, allows her own opinions and thoughts to be those of her loved ones. When John puts the narrator into the room, she writes in despite of him telling her that she should not. At the end of her first passage, the narrator tells us, "There comes John, and I must put this away - he hates to have me write a word". The narrator was told that writing and any other intellectual activity would exhaust her. The only thing that exhausts her about it is hiding it from them. The narrator tells us, "I did write for a while in spite of them; but it does exhaust me a good deal - having to be so sly about it, or else meet with heavy opposition". Conrad Shumaker suggests that John believes that if someone uses too much imagination then they will not be able to figure out reality. "He fears that because of her imaginative 'temperament' she will create the fiction that she is mad and come to accept it despite the evidence - color, weight, appetite - that she is well. Imagination and art are subversive because they threaten to undermine his materialistic universe" In Gilman's "Why I Wrote the Yellow Wallpaper", Gilman tells us that when she was sent home from the rest cure, Dr. Mitchell gave her "solemn advice to 'live as domestic a life as far as possible,' to 'have but two hours intellectual... ...lf. Her thoughts were always for someone beside herself. When Olenka was alone "she had no opinions of any sort. She saw the objects about her and understood what she saw, but could not form any opinion about them, and did not know what to talk about." Olenka had nothing to make conversation and if she would make conversation, she could not give her opinion. In conclusion, both women had a strong control factor in their life. In "The Yellow Wallpaper", the main character makes no decisions of her own. Her husband, John, controls everything she does. In "The Darling", the men surrounding her life control all of Olenka's opinions. The men do not mean for it to be this way but that is just how Olenka is. She allows herself to not be able to think on her own. These characters have similar personalities. They both allow themselves to be controlled throughout their lives.

Liberal Studies Versus Concentrated Degree Essay

Thesis Statement: Liberal Arts graduates who possess a wide array of skills have a less difficult time finding long-term employment compared to more applied streams of education. (May Change- I am still hesitant about my topic) A List: Philip Giles, Torben Drewes, and Jon Cowans Abstract: The liberal studies education provides a graduate student with numerous skills and endless employment opportunities. In our continuously changing society and job market, many are struggling with finding employment within their careers. Research currently states that learning various skills and developing a broad-based skill set is the key to having a successful and long-lasting career. For some the liberal education means a general education in terms of â€Å"the classic great books,† as opposed to specialized training for a particular career. For others, it means the subject matter, â€Å"the liberal arts† or â€Å"the humanities. † Either way, the liberal arts offers a diverse education that prepares one for life. Annotated Bibliography: Liberal Arts Degrees and the Labor Market, Philip Giles and Torben Drewes Although more fulfilling salaries for liberal arts careers are promising in the longer term, research says that those of applied majors tend to occupy more job offers and higher salaries at entry level (Short 1). â€Å"While both groups received substantial average hourly wages, wage rates for applied programs graduates were about 6% higher for both men and women† (Giles and Drews 29). Currently, there is a higher demand among employers for new graduates with majors such as engineering, health professions and computer science, however, a lower demand for new graduates with a liberal arts major. It is clear that majority of students are graduating with a technical degree such as business or engineering, however, research shows that graduates with a Humanities degree will develop stronger careers in the future. â€Å"Their longer-term career entry and advancement prospects may be equal or superior to those whose undergraduate majors are of immediate interest to employers† (Short 1). The article states that Humanities and social sciences students acquire different skills than those obtained in more vocationally trained settings (Giles and Drews 32). These Humanities skills, according to the article, earn lower wage rates in entry level positions, however, later in their careers there was higher rates of employment and wages than their applied program counterparts. The reasoning for this, according to Giles and Drew’s article, is it takes longer for liberal arts graduates to figure out what they want to do because the direction they want to go in is not as clear as those of a technical major such as business. The picture that emerges is one in which individuals graduating from programs in the humanities and social sciences had considerably more difficulty with the school-to-work transition† (Giles and Drews 33). In other words, an engineering major has a more concise and direct education that leads them to a certain career, however those who are liberal arts graduates with a broad-based Humanities education, have a more explorative time finding what career direction to follow. Of What Use These Liberal Arts, Jon Cowans A recent study says that Arts graduates were highly successful in gaining long-term employment because of their academic breadth and flexibility (Cowans 20). In Jon Cowan’s, Of What Use These Liberal Arts, a 2002 Trent University economics professor published a study called Value Added: Humanities and Social Sciences Degrees on recent university graduates in the job market. He wrote, â€Å"The development of more generic, but valuable, skills may actually give the liberal arts and science graduates a leg up on their more vocational counterparts since such skills are much less likely to be rendered obsolete by technological trade-induced shocks. The ability to switch sectors of employment has value in a rapidly changing economy† (Cowans 21). In other words, liberal arts and science graduates, according to Cowans, have an advantage in the job market because of their broad-based and adaptable skills. According to the article, it is principally for these skills that the Arts graduates are finding employment. â€Å"A better organized mind, capable of inquiring and distinguishing false from true and fact from opinion; a mind enhanced in its ability to write, read and compute† (Cowans 21). The main distinction Cowans makes is that more applied streams of education limit a graduate whereas a liberal studies major has a more diverse educational background to offer an employer. Yes a Liberal Arts Education Can Be Productive, Joseph Short President of Bradford College, Joseph Short, believes that a strong liberal arts education prepares students to strive for a fulfilling career. According to Short’s, Yes a Liberal Arts Education Can be Productive, an education in the Arts paves more pathways to executive, professional, and leadership positions in society than many vocationally specific undergraduate majors in technical fields (Short 1). Further, a degree in liberal arts develops higher-order intellectual skills such as problem solving, reasoning, and data analysis that allow the Humanities graduate to perform various skills that are affective within a number of careers. Last, these graduates are highly recommended for entry level and long term occupations in education, communications, journalism, human services, management, government and internal relations (Short 1). Liberal Arts Studies Offer an Edge in Corporate Jobs, Carol Kleiman Similarly, in Carol Kleiman’s article Liberal Arts Studies Offer an Edge in Corporate Jobs, she discusses the negative impact having a technical degree such as business has on a graduate. In the article, John R. Marshal has an engineering degree from Princeton University and an MBA from the University of Virginia but still felt a gap in his education.’ I had too narrow a technical education, and while that helps meet your employer’s immediate needs, you’re not left with any way to navigate your life’† (Kleiman, 1). Consequently, he went back to school for a degree in liberal studies and felt a more broadened view of the world (Kleiman 1. ) Overall, Kleiman’s article explains that any sort of education is worthwhile however, an in-depth educational background in liberal studies allows the strong possibility for an advancing career of upward mobility because of its broad education and endless employment possibilities. What Does a Liberal Arts Degree Get You in Today’s Job Market, Eisa Nunez According to Eisa Nunez’s What Does a Liberal Arts Degree get you in Today’s Job Market, â€Å"in today’s technological world – where knowledge doubles every 18 months and industries are created in less time – requires workers with transferable skills they need to be ready for as many as 11 different jobs in a lifetime† (Nunez 1). â€Å"The only education that prepares us for change is a liberal education. In periods of change, narrow specialization condemns us to inflexibility† (Nunez 1). It is true that 70 to 80 percent of college freshman list the following as their reasons for attending college: earning money, finding job, and preparing for a career (Nunez 1). Rather than concentrating on learning one skill and going out into the workforce, Nunez says that taking time to develop critical thinking, writing, and presentation skills in various areas is necessary to leading a long term successful career in the 21st century. This preoccupation with the short-term is based on an old labor-market model that assumes that a narrow, technical education is the key to success. However, David Kearns, executive chief officer of Xerox says, â€Å"This idea does not work in a modern economy where adaptability is the key† (Nunez 1). College of Liberal Arts Needs a Makeover On the contrary, in College of Liberal Arts Needs a Makeover, the author says that the college major, Liberal Arts is in dire need of a makeover, â€Å"a new marketing campaign to promote an updated image† (Frank 1). â€Å"It’s a shame that many people believe a liberal arts major has limited job prospects upon graduation† (Frank 1). Further, the article states that businesses would rather have new hires with specialized technical training to fill entry level positions. â€Å"People who can hit the ground running, they say, like engineers, programmers, hotel managers, nurses, lab technicians† (Frank 1). In other words, those fresh out of technical training are prepared to begin working in the career of their choice, whereas Liberal Arts graduates need more training in their job choice. Frank says that because the name Liberal means free or generous, the word free gets mistaken with easy. An engineering student has to master really difficult subjects like physics and calculus. A liberal arts student takes English and history† (Frank 1) Therefore, subconsciously, people think it can’t be that hard to study English. Interdisciplinary Approach: Advantages and Disadvantages, and the Future Benefits of Interdisciplinary Studies, Casey Jones In Casey Jones article, Interdisciplinary Approach: Advantages and Disadvantages, and the Future Benefits of Interdisciplinary Studies, discusses the current structure of the educational system. She believe that Liberal or interdisciplinary studies focus on the fringes of a field and owers an academic’s reputation in the eyes of his peers and hurts his chances for tenure†(Jones 78). In other words, the academic system is still very much structured on the concentration of specific majors because the integration of interdisciplinary or Liberal studies, does not fully prepare a student for employment in the real world. The Employable Liberal Arts Major, Rachel Donadio Similarly, Rachel Donadio’s article points out with tuition costs raising and the state of the economy, it is better to learn as many applied skills as possible. This year at Colgate and New York University, there have been professional training programs instilled which allow students to participate in non-credit courses that offer them specific job training within a field. With the competitive job market, there are a lot of specific skills that young people need as the economy and employment industry continue to diversify. â€Å"Colleges say they aren’t abandoning the liberal arts education but rather bring the ideal slightly more in line with the job market reality† (Donadio). Although this article slightly goes against my thesis statement, I believe it offers a different view on the liberal arts education. Studies Indicate that Liberal Arts Grads are Less Likely to be Recruited for Jobs In Studies Indicate that Liberal Arts Grads are Less Likely to be Recruited for Jobs, The Wall Street Journal, confirms that employment recruiting companies favor top ivy league schools over less reputable schools. In this article, seniors graduating from Mount Holyoke, a liberal arts college, â€Å"are much less likely to be recruited from top companies† (The Mount Holyoke News). Although they are less likely to be recruited, employment after college is not as affected. â€Å"The national unemployment rate for college graduates under 25 in 2010 was 8 percent, up from 6. 8 percent in April 2009 and 3. 7 percent in April 2007† (The Mount Holyoke News). Despite the great recession, according to the article, our recent graduate have done well. â€Å"Our students have the critical thinking skills, the communication skills, the ability to understand. The ability to communicate across cultures-the things employers really look for† (The Mount Holyoke News).

A Quick Guide to Getting a Pay Raise

A Quick Guide to Getting a Pay Raise Are you thinking about asking for a raise? Before you do, make sure you have positioned yourself as strongly as possible for a yes. Consider when raises are generally granted at your company. Is it at the end of the year? On the anniversary of your start date? Take a look at the following infographic to determine whether you are ready, or you need to wait a bit for a higher salary. Don’t Do ThisAfter you have decided that you will ask for more money, be careful how you position yourself. Check out the following video from Fast Company to see how you really sound when you ask for a raise.Do ThisSo what’s the right way to ask for a raise? You have to prove your worth to the company. Enter the meeting with a well-thought-out justification for a salary increase. It should be based solely on performance, whether it is exceeding established goals, or bring in new business. Check out the following video to learn how to best ask for a raise.This article is part of Bulk Up Your Career in 2017Â  campaign. Access the entire guide here to help you succeed in 2017.

A History of the Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon)

A History of the Napoleonic Code (Code Napolà ©on) The Napoleonic Code  (Code Napolà ©on) was a unified legal code produced in post-revolutionary France and enacted by Napoleon in 1804. Napoleon gave the laws his name, and they largely remain in place in France today. They also heavily influenced world laws in the 19th century. It is easy to imagine how the conquering Emperor could spread a legal system across Europe, but it might have surprised many of his day to know long it outlasted him. The Need for Codified Laws France in the century before the French Revolution may have been a single country, but it was far from a homogenous unit. As well as language and economic differences, there was no single unified set of laws that covered the whole of France. Instead, there were large geographic variations, from the Roman Law which dominated in the south, to a Frankish/Germanic Customary Law which dominated in the north around Paris. Add to this the canon law of the church which controlled some affairs, a mass of royal legislation which had to be considered when looking at legal problems, and the effects of local laws derived from parlements or appellate courts and trials, and there was a patchwork which was very difficult to negotiate, and which stimulated a demand for a universal, equitable set of laws. However, there were plenty of people in positions of local power, often in venal offices, who worked to prevent any such codification, and all attempts to do so before the revolution failed. Napoleon and the French Revolution The French Revolution acted as a brush that swept away a mass of local differences in France, including many of the powers that stood against codifying the laws. The result was a country in a position to- in theory- create a universal code. And it was a place that really needed one. The Revolution went through various phases, and forms of government- including Terror- but by 1804 was under the control of General Napoleon Bonaparte, the man who appeared to have decided the French Revolutionary Wars in France’s favor. Glory Beyond the Battlefield Napoleon wasn’t just a man hungry for battlefield glory; he knew a state had to be built to support both him and a renewed France. Most important was to be a law code that bore his name. Attempts to write and enforce a code during the revolution had failed, and Napoleon’s achievement in forcing it through was massive. It also reflected glory back onto him: He was desperate to be seen as more than a general who took charge, but as the man who brought a peaceful end to the revolution, and establishing a legal code was a massive boost to his reputation, ego, and ability to rule.   The Code Napolà ©on The Civil Code of the French People was enacted in 1804 across all the regions France then controlled: France, Belgium, Luxembourg, chunks of Germany and Italy, and was later spread further across Europe. In 1807, it became known as the Code Napolà ©on. It was supposed to be written fresh, and based on the idea that a law based on common sense and equality should replace one based on custom, societal division, and the rule of kings. The moral justification for its existence was not that it came from God or a monarch (or in this case an emperor), but because it was rational and just. A Compromise Between Old and New All male citizens were supposed to be equal, with nobility, class, a position of birth all wiped away. But in practical terms, much of the revolution’s liberalism was lost and France turned back to Roman law. The code did not extend to emancipating women, who were subjugated to fathers and husbands. Freedom and the right of private property were key, but branding, easy imprisonment, and limitless hard labor returned. Non-whites suffered, and slavery was allowed in French colonies. In many ways, the Code was a compromise of the old and the new, favoring conservatism and traditional morality. Written as Several Books The Napoleonic Code was written as several Books, and although it was written by teams of lawyers, Napoleon was present at nearly half of the Senate discussions. The first book dealt with laws and people, including civil rights, marriage, relationships, including those of parent and child, etc. The second book concerned laws and things, including property and ownership. The third book tackled how you went about getting and modifying your rights, such as inheritance and through marriage. More codes followed for other aspects of the legal system: 1806’s Code of Civil Procedure; 1807’s Commercial Code; 1808’s Criminal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure; 1810’s Penal Code. Still in Place The Napoleonic Code has been modified, but essentially remains in place in France, two centuries after Napoleon was defeated and his empire dismantled. It is one of his most lasting achievements in a country in thrall to his rule for a turbulent generation. However, it was only in the latter half of the 20th century that laws were altered to reflect equality to women. Wide Influence After the Code was introduced in France and nearby areas, it spread across Europe and into Latin America. Sometimes a straight translation was used, but other times large changes were made to fit local situations. Later Codes also looked to Napoleon’s own, such as the Italian Civil Code of 1865, although this was replaced in 1942. In addition, laws in Louisiana’s civil code of 1825 (largely still in place), derive closely from the Napoleonic Code. However, as the 19th century turned into the 20th, new civil codes in Europe and around the world rose to reduce the importance of France’s, although it still has an influence.